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234 lines
18 KiB
234 lines
18 KiB
\section{Embedded system}
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An embedded \gls{system} is some combination of \gls{computer} \gls{hw} and \gls{sw}, either fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a particular function \cite{ganssle2008embedded}. Industrial machines, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, household appliances, airplanes, vending machines and toys (as well as the more obvious cellular phone and \gls{pda}) are among the myriad possible hosts of an embedded \gls{system}. Embedded \glspl{system} that are programmable are provided with programming \glspl{interface}, and embedded \glspl{system} programming is a specialized occupation.
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\subsection{Processing units}
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The term embedded \gls{system} is quite broad, so there is no surprise that the spectrum of used processing units is also wide. Since the general purpose microprocessors require external components, namely memories and \glspl{peripheral}, they tend to consume extra power and a board space. Since the design limitations of an embedded \glspl{system} are most of the time low physical size, low power consumption and/or long uptime and ruggedness (more components mean more parts could fail), microprocessors are seldom used. However, most of the commonly used architectures and word lengths are covered. Due to aforementioned reasons, microcontrollers are favored over microprocessors.
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\subsection{System-on-chip}
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Today's state of chip integration allows production costs of a complex \gls{system} on chip devices to be relatively low, thus making \gls{soc} attractive choice for embedded \glspl{system}. \glspl{soc} could be described as an \gls{ic} that integrates all components of a \gls{computer} or other electronic \gls{system} into a single chip. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often \gls{rf} functions - all on a single chip substrate \cite{flynn2011computer}. \glspl{soc} are very common in the mobile electronics market because of their low power consumption. A typical \gls{soc} consists of (specific block diagram can be seen on \ref{f:ar_block}):
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\begin{itemize}
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\item a microcontroller, microprocessor or \gls{dsp} core(s)
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\item memory blocks including a selection of \gls{rom}, \gls{ram}, \gls{eeprom} and \Gls{flash}
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\item timing sources including oscillators and phase-locked loops
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\item \glspl{peripheral} including counter-timers, real-time timers and power-on reset generators
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\item external \glspl{interface}, including industry standards such as \gls{usb}, FireWire, \Gls{ethernet}, \gls{uart}, \gls{spi}
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\item analog \glspl{interface} including \glspl{adc} and \glspl{dac}
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\item voltage regulators and power management circuits
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\item a bus connecting these blocks
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\end{itemize}
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\glspl{soc} can be implemented as an \gls{asic} or using a \gls{fpga}.
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\subsection{Operating system}
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An \gls{os} is a \gls{computer} \gls{program} that supports a \gls{computer}'s basic functions, and provides services to other \glspl{program} (or applications) that run on the \gls{computer}. The \glspl{application} provide the functionality that the user of the \gls{computer} wants or needs. The services provided by the operating \gls{system} make writing the applications faster, simpler, and more maintainable.
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Over time, a lot of embedded \glspl{os} suited for embedded \glspl{system} were developed. An embedded \gls{os} is a type of \gls{os} that is embedded and specifically configured for a certain \gls{hw} configuration. \Gls{hw} that uses embedded \gls{os} is designed to be lightweight and compact, forsaking many other functions found in non-embedded (i.e. desktop) \gls{computer} \glspl{system} in exchange for efficiency at resource usage \cite{holt2014embedded}. This means that they are made to do specific tasks and do them efficiently. Notable embedded \glspl{os} currently in use by consumers include:
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\begin{itemize}
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\item \textbf{Embedded \Gls{linux}} - used in many other devices like printers, \glspl{router} or smart TVs; \Gls{android} \ref{f:android_scr} is a derivative of embedded \Gls{linux}
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\item \textbf{iOS} - subset of Mac \gls{os} X, used in Apple’s mobile devices Palm \gls{os}
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\nopagebreak
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\item \textbf{Windows Mobile} - Microsoft's \gls{os} for mobile devices
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\end{itemize}
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\begin{figure}[ht!]
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\centering
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\includegraphics[width=.4\textwidth,angle=0]{android_scr}
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\caption{The \Gls{android} 5 (Lollipop) screenshot - the most common \gls{os} is among the embedded ones}\label{f:android_scr}
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\end{figure}
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\subsection{Real-time operating system}
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A \gls{rtos} is just a special purpose \gls{os}. The real time part of the name does not mean that the \gls{system} responds quickly, it just means that there are rigid time requirements that must be met. If these time requirements are not met, the results can become inaccurate or unreliable\cite{jean2002microc}. Embedded \glspl{system} frequently posses the real time requirement. There are two kinds of \glspl{rtos}:
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\begin{description}
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\item[Hard Real Time]- \gls{system} delays are known or at least bounded. Said to be operating correctly if the \gls{system} can return results within any time constraints.
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\item[Soft Real Time]- critical tasks get priority over other tasks and will retain priority until the task is completed. This is another way of saying that real time tasks cannot be kept waiting indefinitely. Soft real time makes it easier to mix the \gls{system} with other \glspl{system}.
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\end{description}
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\subsection{Embedded Linux}
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\Gls{linux} itself is a \gls{kernel}, but \Gls{linux} in day to day terms rarely means so. Embedded \Gls{linux} generally refers to a complete \Gls{linux} distribution targeted at embedded devices. There is no \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel} specifically targeted at embedded devices, the same \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel} source code can be built for a wide range of devices, workstations, embedded \glspl{system}, and desktops though it allows the configuration of a variety of optional features in the \gls{kernel} itself. In the embedded development context, there can be an embedded \Gls{linux} \gls{system} which uses the \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel} and other software or an embedded \Gls{linux} distribution which is a prepackaged set of applications meant for embedded \glspl{system} and is accompanied by development tools to build the system\cite{hallinan2010embedded}.
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With the availability of consumer embedded devices, communities of users and developers were formed around theses devices: Replacement or enhancements of the \Gls{linux} distribution shipped on the device has often been made possible thanks to availability of the source code and to the communities surrounding the devices. Due to the high number of devices, standardized build \glspl{system} have appeared, namely OpenWRT.
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\subsection{Kernel}
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The \gls{kernel} is the essential center of a \gls{computer} \gls{os}, the core that provides basic services for all other parts of the \gls{os} \cite{bovet2005understanding}. It has complete control over what happens in the \gls{system}. A \gls{kernel} can be contrasted with a \gls{shell}, the outermost part of an \gls{os} that interacts with user commands. \Gls{kernel} and \gls{shell} are terms used more frequently in Unix or Unix-like \glspl{os} than in IBM mainframe or Microsoft Windows \glspl{system}.
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\begin{figure}[ht!]
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\centering
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\includegraphics[width=.6\textwidth,angle=0]{linux_block}
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\caption{The simplified view on the \Gls{linux} \gls{system} structure}\label{f:linuxbl}
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\end{figure}
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The simplified view on the \Gls{linux} \gls{system} structure can be seen on \ref{f:linuxbl}. It does not include device \gls{driver}, \glspl{compiler}, \glspl{daemon}, \glspl{utility}, \glspl{command}, \gls{library} files and such, but should be enough for a demonstration.
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\subsection{OpenWRT}
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OpenWrt is an \gls{os} (in particular, an embedded \gls{os}) based on the \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel}, primarily used on embedded devices to route \gls{network} traffic. It has been optimized for size, to be small enough for fitting into the limited storage and memory available in home \glspl{router}.
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OpenWrt is configured using a command-line \gls{interface} (ash \gls{shell}), or a web \gls{interface} (LuCI). There are about 3500 optional \gls{sw} packages available for installation via the opkg package management \gls{system}.
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\subsection{Components of the OpenWRT}
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The main components are the \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel}, \texttt{util-linux-ng}, \texttt{uClibc} and \texttt{BusyBox}. The \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel} was already mentioned. \texttt{util-linux-ng} is self explanatory - it is a set of \gls{linux} utilities.
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\texttt{BusyBox} is a software that provides several stripped-down \Gls{unix} tools in a single executable file. It runs in a variety of \gls{posix} environments such as \Gls{linux}, \Gls{android}, \gls{bsd} family and others, such as proprietary \glspl{kernel}, although many of the tools it provides are designed to work with \glspl{interface} provided by the \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel}.
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\texttt{uClibc} is a small C standard library intended for \Gls{linux} \gls{kernel}-based operating systems for embedded \gls{system} and mobile devices.
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\newpage
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\section{GL.inet board}
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GL.inet Smart \Gls{router} is a remake of a common TP-Link \gls{router} TL-WR703N. The board changes include, but are not limited to, increased \gls{ram} and \Gls{flash} memory, custom \gls{firmware} and what is the most important - 5 usable \gls{gpio} pins exposed to the 2cm pin header for utility. Whole thesis is revolving around taking advantage of this fact. The frequency of \gls{cpu} is 400 \gls{mhz} and it is suited for running \Gls{linux} distributions for embedded devices, preferably OpenWrt or DD-Wrt. The board provides \gls{lan} and \gls{wan} connection, as well as other \glspl{interface} defined in \gls{ieee}. The information about the board are summed up in the table \ref{t:charact}.
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\begin{table}[h]
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\caption{The basic characteristics of the GL.inet board}\label{t:charact}
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\medskip
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\centering
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\def\arraystretch{1.5}
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\setlength{\tabcolsep}{12pt}
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\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}
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\hline
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Model & GL-iNet 6408A / 6416A \\
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\hline
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\gls{cpu} & Atheros 9331, 400 \gls{mhz} \\
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\hline
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\gls{ram} & DDR 64\gls{MB} \\
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\hline
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\gls{rom} & \Gls{flash} 8\gls{MB} (6408A) / 16\gls{MB} (6416A) \\
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\hline
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\Gls{interface} & 1 \gls{wan}, 1 \gls{lan}, 1 \gls{usb}2.0,
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1 Micro \gls{usb}(Power), 5 \gls{gpio} \\
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\hline
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Wireless & \gls {ieee}802.11n/g/b, \gls{ieee} 802.3, \gls{ieee} 802.3u \\
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\hline
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsection{Atheros AR9331 wi-fi System-on-Chip}
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The Atheros AR9331 is a highly integrated and cost effective \gls{ieee} 802.11n 1x1 2.4 G\gls{hz} \gls{soc} for \gls{wlan} \gls{ap} and \gls{router} platforms. The block diagram of the chip can be seen in figure \ref{f:ar_block}. Features of this \gls{soc} are following:
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\begin{itemize}
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\item Complete \gls{ieee} 802.11n 1x1 \gls{ap} or \gls{router} in a single chip
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\item \gls{mips} 24K processor operating at up to 400 \gls{mhz}
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\item External 16-bit \gls{ddram} or \gls{sdr} memory \gls{interface}
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\item \gls{spi} NOR \Gls{flash} memory support
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\item No external \gls{eeprom} needed
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\item 4 \gls{lan} ports and 1 \gls{wan} port \gls{ieee} 802.3 Fast \Gls{ethernet} switch with auto-crossover, auto polarity
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\item Fully integrated \gls{rf} front-end including \gls{pa} and \gls{lna}
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\item Optional external \gls{lna}/\gls{pa}
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\item Switched antenna diversity
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\item High-speed \gls{uart} for console support
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\item \gls{i2s}/\gls{spdif} audio \glspl{interface}
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\item \gls{slic} for \gls{voip}/\gls{pcm}
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\item \gls{usb} 2.0 host/device mode support
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\item \gls{gpio}/\gls{led} support
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\item \gls{jtag}-based processor debugging supported
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\item 25 \gls{mhz} or 40 \gls{mhz} reference clock input
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% \item Advanced power management with dynamic clock switching for ultra-low power modes
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\item 148-pin, 12 mm x 12 mm dual-row \gls{lpcc} package
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\end{itemize}
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\begin{figure}[ht!]
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\centering
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\includegraphics[width=.8\textwidth,angle=0]{AR9331_block}
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\caption{The block diagram of the Atheros AR9331 \gls{soc} used as a main processing unit on GL.inet board}\label{f:ar_block}
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\end{figure}
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\subsection{From TL-WR703N to GL.inet}
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TP-Link TL-WR703N \gls{router} is a popular choice among \gls{hw} customisation community because of it's cheap price tag compared to processing power and usage of a full-grown \Gls{linux} distribution. People have figured out how to upgrade \gls{ram} / \Gls{flash} memories or to make use of not used \gls{gpio} / UART ports for their own needs. These solutions however were mostly crude and expensive to replicate. The GL.inet team saw an opportunity to grasp this public knowledge and rolled out their own improved board clone to the marked.
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Whole printed circuit board of TL-WR703N was remade by the GL.inet team to expose the unused \gls{gpio} pins on the \gls{soc}, utilize two \Gls{ethernet} port instead of one and utilize the \gls{usb} 2.0 port. Memory chips were replaced by their higher capacity alternatives.
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%\begin{figure}[ht!]
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%\centering
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%\includegraphics[width=.8\textwidth,angle=0]{gl-inet_pcb_up}
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%\caption{The front side of the GL.inet board exposing the main Atheros \gls{soc}, \gls{ram} and \glspl{interface}}\label{f:board_front}
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%\end{figure}
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%
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%
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%\begin{figure}[ht!]
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%\centering
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%\includegraphics[width=.8\textwidth,angle=0]{gl-inet_pcb_down}
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%\caption{The back side of the GL.inet board exposing the \Gls{flash} memory and a main voltage regulator}\label{f:board_back}
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%\end{figure}
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\newpage
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\section{Electric power measurement}
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Measuring the electric power makes most sense on the customer appliances. The first reason is, that they generally consume power that is purchased on contract. The energetic company measures all the power used up by the end customer, but customer has no easy way to see how much and how \textit{effectively} is power used by the appliances. The second important reason is that the appliances has a standardised connector (plug) that is guaranteed to fit in all the area using it, which is not a case for example on battery powered devices (batteries has different sizes, connectors and general properties.
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When it comes to measuring the electrical power, the first and the most important thing to discuss is safety. Only after all the safety precautions had been made clear, the theory can be clarified and subsequently, the practice can be applied. The chapter focuses solely on the first two topics.
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\subsection{Voltage ranges and safety disclaimer}
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The \gls{iec} international standard \textbf{IEC 60038:1983} defines a set of standard voltages for use in AC electricity supply systems.
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\begin{table}[ht!]
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\centering
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\caption{International standards grouping ranges of supply voltages to three categories}
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\label{t:volt_ranges}
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\tabcolsep=5pt
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\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
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\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|}
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\hline
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{\bf IEC voltage range} & {\bf AC} & {\bf DC} & {\bf defining risk} \\ \hline
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High voltage & \textgreater 1000 V$_{rms}$ & \textgreater 1500 V & electrical arcing \\ \hline
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Low voltage & 50–1000 V$_{rms}$ & 120–1500 V & electrical shock \\ \hline
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Extra-low voltage & \textless 50 V$_{rms}$ & \textless 120 V & low risk \\ \hline
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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The appliances under test work on mains voltage. In Europe, the nominal voltage of mains line for appliances is 230 V / 50 Hz. This falls into the voltage range, with defining risk of \textbf{electrical shock} as described in the table \ref{t:volt_ranges}.
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If not handled with care, operating or manipulating with voltage can cause permanent damage to appliance or health, or can cause fire or even death. Thus, respect, increased care and knowledge is necessary in all further practical steps involved.
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\subsection{Electric power as a physical quantity}
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In general physics terms, power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred (or transformed).Electric energy in particular, begins as electric potential energy – what we lovingly refer to as voltage. When electrons flow through that potential energy, it turns into electric energy. In most useful circuits, that electric energy transforms into some other form of energy. Electric power is measured by combining both how much electric energy is transferred, and how fast that transfer happens.
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The electric power P is equal to the energy consumption E divided by the consumption time t
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$$P = \frac Et$$
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where P is the electric power in watt (W), E is the energy consumption in joule (J) and
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t is the time in seconds (s).
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\subsubsection{In resistive circuits}
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In the case of purely resistive (Ohmic, or linear) loads, Joule's law can be combined with Ohm's law (V = I·R) to produce alternative expressions for the amount of power that is dissipated:
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$$P = IV = I^2R = \frac{V^2}R$$
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where R is the electrical resistance in ohms ($\Omega$).
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\subsubsection{In alternating current (AC) circuits}
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When a reactance (either inductive or capacitive) is present in an AC circuit, the previous formula does not apply. The product of voltage and current is, instead, expressed in volt-amperes (VA). This product is known as
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the \textit{apparent power}.
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\textbf{Real power} (or true power) is the power that is used to do the work on the load:
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$$P = V_{rms}I_{rms}\,cos\,\varphi$$
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where P is the real power in watts (W), $V_{rms}$ is the RMS voltage, defined as $V_{peak}/\sqrt{2}$ in Volts (V), $I_{rms}$ is the RMS current, defined as $I_{peak}/\sqrt{2}$ in Amperes (A) and $\varphi$ is the impedance phase angle - phase difference between voltage and current.
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\textbf{Reactive power} on the other hand, is the power that is wasted and not used to do work on the load. Curiously, it is defined as
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$$Q = V_{rms}I_{rms}\,sin\,\varphi$$
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with $Q$ being the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive (VAR).
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\textbf{Apparent power} is the power that is supplied to the circuit. Definition:
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$$S = V_{rms}I_{rms}$$
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where the unit of apparent power $S$ is volt-ampere (VA). It can be seen that it is not phase-angle dependent.
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The relation all these three quantities are in is defined as
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$$ P^2 + Q^2 = S^2 $$
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however, again, nothing in the real world is perfect, and this relation only applies for a perfectly sinusoidal waveforms.
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\subsection{Power factor}
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\subsection{Measuring electric power with a microcontroller}
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